what factors lead to the golden age of athens

Gilt Age of Athens, 480–404 BCE

Fifth-century Athens is the Greek city-state of Athens in the fourth dimension from 480 to 404 BC. Formerly known as the Golden Age of Athens, the afterward part being the Age of Pericles, it was buoyed by political hegemony, economical growth and cultural flourishing. The period began in 478 BC, after the defeat of the Persian invasion, when an Athenian-led coalition of city-states, known as the Delian League, confronted the Persians to keep the liberated Asian Greek cities gratis.

After peace was fabricated with Persia in the mid-5th century BC, what started every bit an alliance of independent city-states became an Athenian empire after Athens abandoned the pretense of parity among its allies and relocated the Delian League treasury from Delos to Athens, where it funded the building of the Athenian Acropolis, put half its population on the public payroll, and maintained its position every bit the dominant naval power in the Greek world.

With the empire'due south funds, military dominance and its political fortunes guided by statesman and orator Pericles, Athens produced some of the well-nigh influential and enduring cultural artifacts of the Western tradition. The playwrights Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides all lived and worked in 5th-century BC Athens, as did the historians Herodotus and Thucydides, the medico Hippocrates and the philosophers Plato and Socrates. Athens'south patron goddess was Athena, from whom it derived the proper name.

Overview [edit]

During the golden age, Athenian military machine and external affairs were mostly entrusted to the ten generals who were elected each year by the ten tribes of citizens, who could be relied on rather than the variable-quality magistrates chosen past lot nether the democracy. These strategoi were given duties which included planning war machine expeditions, receiving envoys of other states and directing diplomatic diplomacy. During the time of the clout of Ephialtes every bit leader of the democratic faction, Pericles was his deputy. When Ephialtes was assassinated for overthrowing the elitist Quango of the Aeropagus, Pericles stepped in and was elected in 445 BC, a mail service he held continuously until his expiry in 429 BC, always by election of the Athenian Assembly.

Pericles was a great speaker; this quality brought him tremendous success in the Associates, presenting his vision of politics. One of his most popular reforms was to allow thetes (Athenians without wealth) to occupy public office. Another success of his administration was the creation of the misthophoria ( μισθοφορία , which literally means paid role), a special salary for the citizens that attended the courts equally jurors. This style, these citizens were able to dedicate themselves to public service without facing financial hardship. With this organisation, Pericles succeeded in keeping the courts full of jurors (Ath. Pol. 27.three), and in giving the people experience in public life. As Athens' ruler, he made the urban center the first and most of import polis of the Greek world, acquiring a resplendent culture and democratic institutions.

The sovereign people governed themselves, without intermediaries, deciding matters of country in the Assembly. Athenian citizens were free and simply owed obedience to their laws and respect to their gods. They achieved equality of speech in the Associates: the give-and-take of a poor person had the same worth as that of a rich person. The censorial classes did not disappear, only their ability was more limited; they shared the fiscal and military offices but they did not have the ability of distributing privileges.

The principle of equality granted to all citizens had dangers since many citizens were incapable of exercising political rights due to their farthermost poverty or ignorance. To avoid this, Athenian democracy applied itself to the task of helping the poorest in this style:

• Concession of salaries to public functionaries.
• To seek and supply work to the poor.
• To grant lands to dispossessed villagers.
• Public assistance for war widows, invalids, orphans and indigents.
• Other social assist.

Well-nigh importantly, and in guild to emphasize the concept of equality and discourage abuse and patronage, practically all public offices that did not require a particular expertise were appointed past lot and not by election. Among those selected by lot to a political trunk, specific office was always rotated so that every single member served in all capacities in plow. This was meant to ensure that political functions were instituted in such a style as to run smoothly, regardless of each official's individual capacity.

These measures appear to have been carried out in great measure since the testimony has come to us from, (among others, the Greek historian Thucydides (c. 460–400 BC), who comments: "Everyone who is capable of serving the metropolis meets no impediment, neither poverty, nor borough condition..."

Institutions [edit]

The magistrates [edit]

The magistrates were people who occupied a public post and formed the administration of the Athenian country. They were submitted to rigorous public command. The magistrates were chosen by lot, using fava beans. Black and white beans were put in a box and depending on which colour the person drew out they obtained the post or not. This was a way of eliminating the personal influence of rich people and possible intrigues and employ of favors. In that location were just 2 categories of posts non chosen by lot, but past election in the Popular Assembly. These were strategoi, or general, and magistrate of finance. It was generally supposed that meaning qualities were needed to exercise each of those two offices. A magistrate's post did non last more than than a year, including that of the strategos and in this sense the connected option of Pericles year later year was an exception. At the stop of every twelvemonth, a magistrate would take to requite an account of his administration and use of public finances.

The most honored posts were the ancient archontes, or archons in English. In previous ages they had been the heads of the Athenian state, but in the Historic period of Pericles they lost their influence and power, although they still presided over tribunals.

Every twelvemonth the citizens elected ten "strategoi" (atypical "strategos"), or generals, who served as both military officers and diplomats. It was through this position that Pericles shaped 5th-century BC Athens.

There were also more than twoscore public administration officers and more than sixty to police the streets, the markets, to check weights and measures and to carry out arrests and executions.

The Associates of the People [edit]

The Assembly (in Greek, ἐκκλησία , that is to say, an assembly by summons), was the first organ of the democracy. In theory it brought together in associates all the citizens of Athens, notwithstanding the maximum number which came to congregate is estimated at half-dozen,000 participants. The gathering identify was a space on the loma called Pnyx, in front of the Acropolis. The sessions sometimes lasted from dawn to dusk. The ecclesia occurred forty times a year.

The Assembly decided on laws and decrees which were proposed. Decisions relied on aboriginal laws that had long been in forcefulness. Bills were voted on in ii stages: first the Assembly itself decided and later the Council or βουλή gave definitive approving.

The Quango or Boule [edit]

The Council or Boule ( βουλή ) consisted of 500 members, fifty from each tribe, functioning as an extension of the Assembly. These were chosen by chance, using the system described earlier, from which they were familiarly known every bit "councillors of the edible bean"; officially they were known equally prytaneis ( πρύτανις , significant "chief" or "teacher").

The council members examined and studied legal projects, supervised the magistrates and saw that daily authoritative details were on the right path. They oversaw the city state's external diplomacy. They also met at Pnyx hill, in a place expressly prepared for the event. The fifty prytaneis in power were located on grandstands carved into the rock. They had stone platforms which they reached past means of a small staircase of three steps. On the offset platform were the secretaries and scribes; the orator would climb up to the second.

Finances [edit]

Reproduction of an Athenian tetradrachm with the image of Pallas Athena—protector of the city—on the front and an owl—symbol of wisdom—on the back (c. 490 BC)

The economical resources of the Athenian State would not have been possible without the treasury of the Delian League. The treasury was originally held on the island of Delos, but Pericles moved information technology to Athens under the pretext that Delos wasn't safe plenty.^{[ citation needed ]} This resulted in internal friction within the league and the rebellion of some city-states that were members. Athens retaliated quickly^{[ when? ]} and some scholars believe this to be the menstruation wherein it would be more appropriate to discuss an Athenian Empire instead of a league.

Other small incomes came from customs fees and fines. In times of war, a special taxation was levied on rich citizens. These citizens were besides charged permanently with other taxes for the good of the city. This was called the system of liturgy. The taxes were used to maintain the triremes which gave Athens great naval power and to pay and maintain a chorus for large religious festivals. Information technology is believed that rich Athenian men saw it as an honor to sponsor the triremes (probably considering they became leaders of it for the period they supported it) or the festivals and they oftentimes engaged in competitive donating.

Athens likewise benefited from a proximity to the trading port of Piraeus. The state of Athens collected a duty on cargo passing through the port. At Piraeus (the main port of Athens), this tax was set at 1% or higher on appurtenances.^[i]

Athens in the Historic period of Pericles [edit]

The Athenian aristocracy lived modestly and without great luxuries, compared to the elites of other ancient states. There were very few great fortunes and land ownership was non concentrated: 71–73% of the citizen population owned 60–65% of the land, whereas the Gini coefficient for citizen population has been calculated every bit 0.708.^[ii] The economy was based on maritime commerce and manufacturing, according to Amemiya'due south estimates, 56% of Athens' GDP was derived from manufacturing.^[3] Agriculture was also of import, just it did not produce enough to feed the populace, so most food had to be imported (it is estimated that the carrying capacity of Attica's soil was between 84,000 and 150,000,^[4] while the population was 300,000 to 350,000 in 431 BC).

The state oversaw all the major religious festivals. The near of import 1 was the Panathenaia in honor of the goddess Athena, a ritual procession carried out once a yr in May and in one case every iv years in July, in which the town presented a new veil (peplos) to the sometime wooden statue of Athena Poliada. Phidias immortalized this procession in the frieze of the Parthenon, which is currently at the British Museum. In the July Panathenaia (Great Panathenaia), large competitions were organized which included gymnastics and horseback riding, the winners of which received amphoras full of sacred olive oil as a prize. The other of import festival was the dramatic Dionysia in honour of Dionysus where tragedies and comedies were performed.

Education [edit]

The education of boys began in their own abode upwards until the age of vii when they had to attend school. There, they had several teachers who taught them to read and write, as well equally subjects such as mathematics and music. Boys likewise had to take part in physical education classes where they were prepared for hereafter war machine service with activities such as wrestling, racing, jumping and gymnastics. At eighteen they served in the ground forces and were instructed on how to bear arms. Concrete educational activity was very intense and many of the boys ended up becoming true athletes. In add-on to these compulsory lessons, the students had the chance to hash out and learn from the nifty philosophers, grammarians and orators of the time. Some poor people had to stay at domicile and help their parents. However, Aristophanes and Socrates, though they were poor, became famous and successful.

Women [edit]

The main role of complimentary women in classical Athens was to ally and bear children.^[5] The emphasis on marriage as a style to perpetuate the family through childbearing had changed from primitive Athens, when (at least amongst the powerful) marriages were as much about making beneficial connections as they were about perpetuating the family unit.^[6] Married women were responsible for the twenty-four hours-to-day running of the household. At wedlock, they assumed responsibility for the prosperity of their husband's household and the health of its members.^[vii] Their primary responsibilities were bearing, raising and caring for children, weaving cloth and making apparel.^[8] They would also have been responsible for caring for ill household members, supervising slaves, and ensuring that the household had sufficient food.^[9] In classical Athenian marriages, husband or wife could legally initiate a divorce.^[five] The adult female's closest male relative (who would exist her kyrios if she were not married) could too do so, evidently even confronting the couple'south wishes.^[x] After divorce, the husband was required to return the dowry or pay 18 percent interest annually then the adult female'south livelihood would continue and she could remarry.^[11] If there were children at the time of the divorce, they remained in their father'due south house and he remained responsible for their upbringing.^[12]

In some cases, Athenian women had the same rights and responsibilities equally Athenian men.^[13] Nevertheless, Athenian women did have some significant disabilities at constabulary compared to their male counterparts. Like slaves and metics, they were denied political freedom, citizenship and voting rights,^[14] being excluded from the law courts and the Assembly.^[fifteen] Women ideally remained apart from men.^[sixteen] However it was recognised that an ideology of separation could not be good by many Athenians. In Politics, Aristotle asked: "How is it possible to preclude the wives of the poor from going out of doors?"^[17] In practice, but wealthy families would have been able to implement this ideology.^[18] Women's responsibilities would accept forced them to go out the house oft – to fetch water from the well or launder clothing, for example. Although wealthy families may have had slaves to enable free women to remain in the house, most would not have had enough slaves to prevent costless women from leaving at all.^[19]

The cult of Athena Polias (the urban center'due south eponymous goddess) was cardinal to Athenian guild, reinforcing morality and maintaining societal structure.^[viii] Women played a cardinal function in the cult; the priestesshood of Athena was a position of bully importance,^[xx] and the priestess could apply her influence to support political positions. According to Herodotus, before the Battle of Salamis the priestess of Athena encouraged the evacuation of Athens by telling the Athenians that the snake sacred to Athena (which lived on the Acropolis) had already left.^[xx]

Arts and literature [edit]

Historians^{[ who? ]} consider the Athenian fifth and 6th centuries BC as the Golden Age of sculpture and architecture. In this catamenia the ornamental elements and the technique employed did not vary from the previous period. What characterizes this menstruum is the quantity of works and the refinement and perfection of the works. Most were religious in nature, mainly sanctuaries and temples. Some examples from this catamenia are:

• The reconstruction of the Temple of Olympian Zeus.
• The reconstruction of the Temple of Apollo in Delphi, which was destroyed by an earthquake.
• The reconstruction of the Acropolis of Athens, the marble city for the glory of the gods. The site had suffered from a burn down started by the Persians and lay in ruins for more thirty years. Pericles initiated its reconstruction with white marble brought from the nearby quarry of Pentelicon. The best architects, sculptors and workers were gathered to complete the Acropolis. The construction lasted xx years. Financing came from the Delian League.

Sculpture [edit]

Phidias is considered the greatest sculptor of this era. He created colossal gold-plated ivory statues ("chryselephantine statues"), generally face and hands, which were highly celebrated and admired in his own time: Athena, situated in the interior of the Parthenon, whose splendor reached the faithful through the open doors, and Zeus in the Sanctuary of Olympia, considered in its age and in later ages to exist one of the marvels of the world.

According to Pliny the Elderberry'southward Natural History, in order to conserve the marble of these sculptures, oil receptacles were placed in the temples and then that the ivory would non crack.

The other not bad sculptors of this century were Myron and Polycletus.

Pottery [edit]

During this age, the product of ceramic pieces was abundant. Amphorae were produced in mass quantity due to the heavy trading with other cities all effectually the Mediterranean. Large evidence of amphorae from this era can be establish around every major ancient port as well every bit in the Aegean sea. During this period is also seen an affluence of white background ceramics which are much more delicate than the previously pop yellow and black groundwork ceramics. These ceramics were often used to continue perfume or for mortuary rites, including decorations on graves. It is likewise known that in that location were many groovy painters, just their works are lost, both frescos and complimentary-standing paintings.^{[ citation needed ]}

Theatre [edit]

The theatre reached its greatest elevation in the 5th century BC. Pericles promoted and favored the theatre with a series of applied and economic measures. The wealthiest families were obligated to care for and to sustain the choruses and actors. Past this means, Pericles maintained the tradition according to which theatrical performances served the moral and intellectual education of the people. Plays were fabricated past men and normally for men, and this platform was oft used to reinforce the patriarchy.^[21]

Athens became the smashing urban center of Greek theatre. Theatrical performances lasted viii consecutive hours and were performed as office of a competition in which a jury proclaimed a winner. While the decor of the provisional theatres was very uncomplicated, the permanent theatrical venues of ancient Athens eventually became more than sumptuous and elaborate. No matter the performance venue, plays were performed past, at about, three actors, who wore masks to identify them with the characters they portrayed; they were accompanied by a chorus who sang and danced.

The dramatic poets from this era whose plays have survived are:

• Aeschylus
• Sophocles
• Euripides
• Aristophanes

Philosophy [edit]

The Golden Age featured some of the about renowned Western philosophers of all time. Chief amidst these were Socrates, whose ideas exist primarily in a series of dialogues by his student Plato, who mixed them with his ain; Plato; and Plato's student, Aristotle.

Other notable philosophers of the Golden Historic period included Anaxagoras; Democritus (who first inquired every bit to what substance lies within all matter, the primeval known proposal of what is now called the atom or its sub-units); Empedocles; Hippias; Isocrates; Parmenides; Heraclitus; and Protagoras.

In the second one-half of the 5th century BC the name of sophist (from the Greek sophistês, expert, teacher, homo of wisdom) was given to the teachers that gave pedagogy on various branches of scientific discipline and knowledge in exchange for a fee.

In this historic period, Athens was the "schoolhouse of Hellenic republic." Pericles and his mistress Aspasia had the opportunity to associate with not simply the neat Athenians thinkers of their day but also other Greek and foreign scholars. Among them were the philosopher Anaxagoras, the architect Hippodamus of Miletus, who reconstructed Peiraeus, as well as the historians Herodotus (484–425), Thucydides (460–395), and Xenophon (427–335).

Athens was also the capital of eloquence. Since the late 5th century BC, eloquence had been elevated to an fine art form. There were the logographers ( λογογράφος ) who wrote courses and created a new literary class characterized by the clarity and purity of the language. It became a lucrative profession. It is known that the logographer Lysias (460–380 BC) fabricated a great fortune thanks to his profession.^{[ citation needed ]} Subsequently, in the 4th century BC, the orators Isocrates and Demosthenes too became famous.

Terminate of the Age of Pericles [edit]

From 461 until his death in 429 BC Pericles was active in the government of Athens, an era of splendour and a standard of living higher than any previously experienced. All was well within the internal government, even so discontent within the Delian League was ever increasing. The foreign diplomacy policies adopted by Athens did not produce the best results; members of the Delian League were increasingly dissatisfied. Athens was the urban center-country that dominated and subjugated the rest of Greece and these oppressed citizens wanted their independence.

Previously, in 550 BC, a similar league between the cities of the Peloponnessus—directed and dominated by Sparta—had been founded. Taking advantage of the general dissent of the Greek city-states, this Peloponnesian League began to confront Athens. After a long lasting series of poorly managed, hawkish policies, (c. 431 BC) and the ensuing Peloponnesian War the city of Athens finally lost its independence in 338 BC, when Philip II of Republic of macedonia conquered the rest of Hellenic republic.

Meet also [edit]

• Hellenic republic in the 5th century BC

References [edit]

1. ^ Fawcett, Peter (2016). ""When I Squeeze You with Eisphorai": Taxes and Tax Policy in Classical Athens". Hesperia: The Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens. 85 (one): 153–199. doi:10.2972/hesperia.85.1.0153. ISSN 0018-098X. JSTOR x.2972/hesperia.85.1.0153.
2. ^ Josiah Ober, "Wealthy Hellas". Princeton/Stanford Working Papers in Classics. 2010.
3. ^ "Economy and Economics of Ancient Greece," Routledge, 2007
4. ^ Ian Morris, "The growth of Greek cities in the get-go millennium BC". Princeton/Stamford Working Papers in Classics. 2005.
5. ^ ^{a b} Pomeroy 1994, p. 62 harvnb fault: no target: CITEREFPomeroy1994 (aid)
6. ^ Osborne 1997, p. 28 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFOsborne1997 (assist)
7. ^ Fantham et al. 1994, p. 101 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFFanthamFoleyKampenPomeroy1994 (help)
8. ^ ^{a b} Gould 1980, p. 51 harvnb fault: no target: CITEREFGould1980 (help)
9. ^ Xenophon, Oeconomicus, vii.35–7.37
10. ^ Gould 1980, p. 43 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFGould1980 (help)
11. ^ Pomeroy 1994, p. 63 harvnb mistake: no target: CITEREFPomeroy1994 (help)
12. ^ Pomeroy 1994, p. 65 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFPomeroy1994 (aid)
13. ^ Patterson 2007, p. 170 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFPatterson2007 (help)
14. ^ Rhodes 1992, p. 95 harvnb fault: no target: CITEREFRhodes1992 (help)
15. ^ Schaps 1998, p. 178 harvnb fault: no target: CITEREFSchaps1998 (assistance)
16. ^ Dover 1973, p. 61 harvnb mistake: no target: CITEREFDover1973 (help)
17. ^ Aristotle, Politics, 1300a.
18. ^ Dover 1973, p. 69 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFDover1973 (aid)
19. ^ Cohen 1989, pp. eight–9 harvnb fault: no target: CITEREFCohen1989 (help)
20. ^ ^{a b} Pomeroy 1994, p. 75 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFPomeroy1994 (help)
21. ^ Allan, Davin (27 March 2013). "The Ideal Paradigm: The Depiction of Women in Fifth Century Drama". Literatured. Archived from the original on 25 March 2014. Retrieved 29 March 2014.

• This article draws heavily on the corresponding article in the Castilian-language Wikipedia, which was accessed in the version of 28 August 2005. That article, in turn, cites:
  • Maurice: Egypte, Orient, Grèce. Bordas, s/l, 1963.
  • Charles: Historia Universal Oriente y Grecia. Daniel Jorro, Madrid, 1930.

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fifth-century_Athens

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